Studies in laboratory and naturalistic settings will explore various social aspects of spatial behavior. Our research to date has been concerned with finding out why individuals sometimes like and sometimes dislike physical closeness. Correlational studies have shown variations in distance associated with personality, physical setting, and type of social interaction. Experimental studies have shown some conditions under which closeness leads to positive or negative reactions and have underscored the importance of substitutes for physical distance. The proposed research will continue and extend this work, developing a model which treats distance as the resultant of independently specifiable approach and avoidance forces. Individual differences in the person's life history will be used to predict reactions to various aspects of crowding. There will be considerable emphasis upon interwoven themes of arousal, aggression, reactance, sex differences, and developmental history. Specific studies will be conducted in six areas: gravitation of human beings toward edges and objects, individual differences in response to crowding, the role of facial signaling in spatial behavior, effects of eye contact and touch on arousal, factors affecting the infant's leaving his mother, and possible bonding affects of aggression.